Wisdom Wednesday: RNA

Ribonucleic acid or RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and the protein synthesis complexes known as ribosomes, forms vital portions of ribosomes, and acts as an essential carrier molecule for amino acids to be used in protein synthesis.

RNA is very similar to DNA, but differs in a few important structural details: RNA is single stranded, while DNA is double stranded. Also, RNA nucleotides contain ribose sugars while DNA contains deoxyribose and RNA uses predominantly uracil instead of thymine present in DNA.

RNA is transcribed from DNA by enzymes called RNA polymerases and further processed by other enzymes. RNA serves as the template for translation of genes into proteins, transferring amino acids to the ribosome to form proteins, and also translating the transcript into proteins.

RNA is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone and four different bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. The first three are the same as those found in DNA, but in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil as the base complementary to adenine.

Uracil is energetically less expensive to produce than thymine, which may account for its use in RNA. Having thymine as the normal base in DNA makes detection and repair of incipient mutations more effective. Thus uracil is appropriate for RNA, where quantity is important but lifespan is not, whereas thymine is appropriate for DNA where maintaining sequence with high fidelity is more critical.

Decaf Coffee

Decaffeinated coffee, or "decaf," is similar in taste and appearance to regular coffee but contains very little caffeine. There is no evidence to suggest that drinking decaf is bad for a person's health, and it may even share some of the health benefits of regular coffee.

According to a 2017 research review, decaf coffee is similar in composition to regular coffee but contains little or no caffeine. To remove the caffeine, manufacturers soak or steam unroasted coffee beans using a combination of water and other chemicals, such as: activated charcoal, supercritical carbon dioxide, methylene chloride and ethyl acetate. Manufacturers use water because caffeine is a water-soluble substance. However, using water by itself may remove other compounds, such as proteins and sugar, from the coffee beans. Using additional chemicals speeds up the decaffeination process, which minimizes the loss of noncaffeine compounds and helps preserve the distinct coffee flavor.

One 2-17 study reviewed 201 meta-analyses of observational research into coffee consumption. Its authors concluded that decaf coffee does not appear to have any harmful health effects. However, the use of methylene chloride in the decaffeination process has raised some concern among members of the coffee community as well as some consumers.

Inhaling even small amounts of methylene chloride — around 200 parts per million (ppm) in the air — can temporarily slow down the central nervous system and affect a person's attention and hand-eye coordination. Mild exposure can also lead to symptoms such as: headache, drowsiness, lightheadedness, irritability, coughing or wheezing

Gut bacteria: The surprising impact of viruses

The microbiome plays a vital role in health. A recent study has investigated how viruses that kill gut bacteria influence these microbes. The findings make an already complicated picture much more so. The microbiome is both fascinating and fashionable.
The increase in public interest has provided a boost in funding to study the interactions between us and our gut bacteria. Scientists have now found relationships between the microbiome and a range of conditions, from diabetes and obesity to Parkinson's and depression.

Thanks to gut bacteria's high profile, grocery stores shelves are now brimming with probiotic products. Despite their wide availability and popularity, however, there is little evidence to suggest that they provide many benefits outside a small number of specific conditions. Although scientists know that the microbes within us are vital, designing a way to moderate them to improve health and fight disease is still a long way off.

The primary reason for this is the dazzling complexity of the microbiome. It is not a single, homogenous entity, but a world of microscopic beings that interact, influence, and inhibit their neighbors, capable of killing, nourishing, and communicating with each other. Already, at this point, we can see the vast difficulties in understanding the ins and outs of the microbiome, but some researchers are examining the next level of complexity: bacteriophages.

Wisdom Wednesday: Research Study on the Effectiveness of Stem Cell Injections

Between June 2014 and February 2017, data from 233 patients with knee osteoarthritis treated with BMAC injection at a single center were retrospectively evaluated. Only patients with idiopathic osteoarthritis were included. Exclusion criteria were post-traumatic osteoarthritis, previous knee surgery, age less than 50 years old or more than 85 years old, active infection, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, rheumatological or other systemic disease, malignancy, or treatment with immunosuppressive drugs. Bone marrow from the iliac crest was aspirated/concentrated with a standardized technique using a single-spin manual method. Patients were evaluated before and after the procedure, using the numeric pain scale (NPS) and Oxford knee score (OKS). Mean follow-up period was 11 months, range (6e30 months).

A total of 121 of 233 patients had completed data as previously defined and were included in the statistical analysis. There were 85 females and 36 males, with mean age 70 years (range 50e85). Compared to baseline, the mean NPS decreased from 8.33 to 4.49 (p 0.001) and the mean OKS increased from 20.20 to 32.29 (P 0.001) at final follow-up. There were no complications.

A single intra-articular injection of BMAC is a safe and reliable procedure that results in clinical improvement of knee OA.

My Take:
This is just the summary of the full article which Apex was kind enough to send to me. The published study listed any conflicts of interest, financial support and most importantly limitations of the study. The study was self-supported by the clinic in Greece that performed all the procedures without any outside financial support.

NAFLD

Sedentary lifestyles, nutrient-poor diets, chemical exposure, and an excess of sugar and refined foods are wreaking havoc on and in our bodies more than ever before. And the effects aren’t just cosmetic – beyond bulging waistlines, the incidence of high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and high cholesterol associated with metabolic syndrome are all on the rise, along with the rate of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

As the name implies, NAFLD (casually pronounced “naffled”) is a condition in which the liver stores excess fat occurring in those who drink little to no alcohol. Over time NAFLD can not only increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, but can also lead to further ailments of the liver like cirrhosis and liver cancer – conditions also seen in heavy alcohol consumers, but now more commonly seen in non-drinkers. In fact, NAFLD is the leading cause of liver disease in the West, often concurrent with other metabolic conditions: approximately 40 to 80% of people with the disease also have type 2 diabetes, and 30 to 90% are obese. As with metabolic syndrome, the incidence of NAFLD is also on the rise among children, affecting an estimated 3 to 12% of children with normal body mass and an alarming 40 to 80% of obese children.

The umbrella term NAFLD encompasses two sub-categories: nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), which is characterized by fatty liver with little to no inflammation; and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which is the more harmful of the two and is defined as fatty liver with inflammation. It’s estimated that 30 to 40% of American adults have NAFL and about 3 to 12% have NASH.

Almond, hemp, oat, soy, and cow's milk: Which is best?

The number of people choosing nondairy, plant-based alternatives to cow's milk appears to be growing. So, how do these different milks compare nutritionally? Research from 2018 says that eating and drinking milk that comes from cows has been falling, with interest in alternative milks rising.

One of the main medical reasons why people choose plant-based milk products is to avoid symptoms of lactose intolerance or a cow milk protein allergy. Doctors estimate the incidence of this allergy is 2 to 5% in children under 3 years old. The incidence is lower in adults.
Some people may also choose plant-based milk products because they believe they are more sustainable, ethical, or healthful options compared to cow's milk.

Almond milk is one of the most widely consumed plant-based milk variety in North America, the European Union, and Australia. Researchers have suggested that almond milk is an effective alternative for children and adults who suffer with allergies or intolerances to milk. Compared to cow's milk, almond milk has less saturated fat and more unsaturated fats. The healthful fats in almond milk may help people lose weight and keep it off. Almond milk is low in calories and protein, which may not be suitable for all people, especially children.

Some manufacturers add calcium to almond milk to better resemble the nutritional content in cow's milk. People may not be able to absorb as much of this calcium as they would from dairy, so they should be sure to consume plenty of other calcium sources, such as dark green vegetables. Almond milk is available in flavored varieties. Some of these products have added sugar to extend the shelf life and improve the flavor and texture.

Unflavored hemp beverages are also low in calories and protein compared with cow's milk. There is, however, more protein in hemp beverages than in almond milk. Hemp seeds are also high in polyunsaturated fats, similarly to almond milk. Research shows that replacing saturated fats with these more healthful fats can help lower a person's overall cholesterol.

Common heartburn drug linked with fatal conditions

New research suggests that drugs commonly used for heartburn, acid reflux, and ulcers may raise the risk of numerous fatal conditions, including heart disease and stomach cancer. Physicians often prescribe proton pump inhibitors(PPIs) to treat gastrointestinal conditions that involve an excess of acid production. Nexium, Aciphex, Zegerid, Dexilant, Prevacid, Prilosec, and Protonix are only some of the brand names that PPIs have taken over the years.

More than 15 million people in the United States take prescription PPIs, according to the most recent statistics available, and even more may be taking over-the-counter PPIs.
A new study, appearing in the journal The BMJ, suggests that these drugs may increase the risk of death from various chronic health conditions.

Dr. Ziyad Al-Aly, an assistant professor of medicine at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, is the senior investigator of the study. For the new study, Dr. Al-Aly and colleagues examined data from the medical records of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.

The researchers looked at data available from mid-2002 to mid-2004, a period during which 157,625 people in the cohort received PPI prescriptions from their physicians and 56,842 people received H2 blockers, another kind of acid suppressant.

The scientists clinically followed the participants — who were predominantly male, Caucasian, and 65 years old or older — for up to a decade. They used the data to build a statistical model of a clinical trial, which would see the participants randomly assigned to take either PPI or H2 blockers. This allowed them to estimate that during the follow-up period, there would be 45.2 excess deaths per every 1,000 individuals taking PPIs.

Gluten Free?

While gluten-free dining options have been steadily increasing, new research has elucidated that there may still be gluten in your “gluten-free” foods. While packaged foods labeled as gluten-free must contain less than 20 parts per million of gluten, there is no similar standard for gluten-free restaurant foods.

A study, published in The American Journal of Gastroenterology in March 2019, reported that a significant amount of restaurant foods classified as gluten-free contain detectable amounts of gluten. The study had participants use a portable device called a Nima Gluten Sensor to test their food. 804 users conducted 5,624 tests in an 18-month period.

The results revealed that gluten was detected in 32% of the foods that were designated gluten-free. Interestingly, the researchers found that gluten detection differed by meal and type of food with the most gluten detection occurring at dinner and more than 50% of pizza and pasta samples testing positive for gluten. Additionally, when stratified by region, researchers found that gluten contamination was less likely to occur in the West than in the Northeast regions of the United States.

These results support the fact that there is gluten contamination in restaurant foods. It should be noted that the Nima device is very sensitive and can detect gluten at 5-10 parts per million, which has unknown clinical significance for those with celiac disease. Nevertheless, this study highlights the prevalence of gluten contamination in restaurants and brings to light the importance of finding gluten-free menus you can trust. The study concluded that their “findings of higher rates of gluten detection in pizza and pasta provide practical data when providing dining strategies for patients with celiac disease”.

Wisdom Wednesday: Improved Quality of Life with Magnesium

Recent research looked at the disability levels, quality of life, and anxiety and depressive symptoms in 34 children aged 7-17 after six months of magnesium prophylaxis for pediatric migraines. According to the researchers, “After 6 months of magnesium prophylaxis, disability due to migraine significantly decreased, whereas physical and psychosocial well-being improved.”

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the body and is a cofactor for more than 300 enzyme systems regulating a variety of chemical reactions in the body. Magnesium is involved in protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function, blood sugar control, and regulation of blood pressure. Magnesium is also involved in energy production as it is necessary for ATP production and glycolysis. Magnesium also contributes to the structural development of bone and is necessary for the synthesis of DNA and RNA.

Magnesium is important for detoxification as it is needed to product glutathione. Magnesium also plays a role in the active transport of calcium and potassium ions across cell membranes, a process that is important to nerve impulse conduction, muscle contraction, and normal heart rhythm. Other studies also show a link between low magnesium and headaches.

Cinnamon

Common Names:  cinnamon, cinnamon bark, Ceylon cinnamon, cassia cinnamon

Latin Name: Cinnamomum verum (also known as Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cinnamomum cassia

There are many types of cinnamon. Cassia cinnamon, native to China, is the most common type sold in the United States and Canada. Ceylon cinnamon, native to Sri Lanka, is common in other countries and is known as “true” cinnamon.

Used as a spice for thousands of years, cinnamon comes from the bark of the cinnamon tree. Essential oils are made from the bark, leaves, or twigs of cassia cinnamon.

Cinnamon has a long history as a traditional medicine, including for bronchitis.
Today, some people use cinnamon as a dietary supplement for gastrointestinal problems, loss of appetite, and diabetes, among other conditions.

Cinnamon is used in capsules, teas, and extracts.

Studies done in people don’t support using cinnamon for any health condition.

A 2012 systematic review of 10 randomized controlled clinical trials in people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes suggests that cinnamon doesn’t help to reduce levels of glucose or glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), a long-term measure of glucose (blood sugar) control.
A product containing cinnamon, calcium, and zinc didn’t improve blood pressure in a small study of people with type 2 diabetes.

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH)-supported research is looking at the effect of cinnamon on processes involved in multiple sclerosis.

High uric acid directly inhibits insulin signaling and induces insulin resistance

Accumulating clinical evidence suggests that hyperuricemia is strongly associated with abnormal glucose metabolism and insulin resistance. However, how high uric acid (HUA) level causes insulin resistance remains unclear. We aimed to determine the direct role of HUA in insulin resistance in vitro and in vivo in mice.

An acute hyperuricemia mouse model was created by potassium oxonate treatment, and the impact of HUA level on insulin resistance was investigated by glucose tolerance test, insulin tolerance test and insulin signaling, including phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) and Akt. HepG2 cells were exposed to HUA treatment and N-acetylcysteine (NAC), reactive oxygen species scavenger; IRS1 and Akt phosphorylation was detected by Western blot analysis after insulin treatment.

Hyperuricemic mice showed impaired glucose tolerance with insulin resistance. Hyperuricemia inhibited phospho-Akt (Ser473) response to insulin and increased phosphor-IRS1 (Ser307) in liver, muscle and fat tissues. HUA induced oxidative stress, and the antioxidant NAC blocked HUA-induced IRS1 activation and Akt inhibition in HepG2 cells.

This study supplies the first evidence of HUA directly inducing insulin resistance in vivo and in vitro. Increased uric acid level may inhibit IRS1 and Akt insulin signalling and induce insulin resistance. The reactive oxygen species pathway plays a key role in HUA-induced insulin resistance.

'Clear Relationship' Between Appendectomy and Parkinson's

An analysis of the health system records of more than 62 million people in the United States has found a link between appendix removal and raised risk of developing Parkinson's disease.

The researchers compared data on people who had undergone an appendectomy, or appendix removal, to those who had not were more than three times more likely to develop
Parkinson's disease later on. The findings are further evidence of a connection between the gut and the brain in Parkinson's disease.

In a gastroenterology abstract about the study, the authors suggest that what is missing from the research on appendix removal and Parkinson's disease risk is "large-scale epidemiological data." Lead study author Dr. Mohammed Z. Sheriff, who works as a physician at University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center and Case Western Reserve University, also in Cleveland, OH, is presenting the findings at the 2019 Digestive Disease Week meeting that takes place May 18–21 in San Diego, CA.

Parkinson's is a disease that gradually destroys cells in a part of the brain that helps control movement. The symptoms of Parkinson's include movement rigidity, tremor, slowness, and balance difficulties. Because it most often strikes older people, the number and proportion of individuals living with Parkinson's disease are rising in aging populations. As yet, there is no cure and no treatment that slows down Parkinson's disease. An avenue that scientists are pursuing concerns alpha-synuclein, which is a protein that features in the development of Parkinson's disease. Although it is not clear what function it serves in those without the disease, alpha-synuclein forms toxic clumps called Lewy bodies in the brains of people with Parkinson's disease. Dr. Sheriff says that more recent research has found clumps of alpha-synuclein in the digestive tract of people in the early stages of Parkinson's disease.

Wisdom Wednesday: Detox Drinks

Some people claim that detox drinks help remove toxins from a person's body and promote weight loss. Typically, a person will include detox drinks as part of a detox diet. However, there is very little evidence that these types of drinks and diet have any detoxification effects. The use of the word detox is not always appropriate. Detox drinks may boost health, aid in weight loss, and support the body's natural detoxification processes, but this is different from medical detoxification.

An article in the Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics notes that some studies show that commercially available detox diets may improve the way a person's liver removes toxins from their body. However, the article also highlights that these studies had flawed methodologies and small sample sizes. A study in the journal Current Gastroenterology Reports found that a detox diet may help a person lose weight, but only because the diet is low in calories. Further, the authors note that diets that help a person lose weight by significantly reducing the number of calories they consume are unsustainable. Typically, people who undertake such calorie-restrictive diets put the weight back in the medium-to-long term.

The National Center for Integrative and Natural Health (NCINH) point out that as well as causing problems with a person's weight in the mid-to-long term, a person on a detox diet may not be getting the nutrition they require to keep their body healthy. Although they do not detox in the medical sense, detox drinks can be healthful.

Typically, people use a food processor to turn raw ingredients into a smoothie. As well as being a convenient way to consume fruits and vegetables, using fresh ingredients preserves the fiber in fruits and vegetables, which the juice alone lacks.

Wisdom Wednesday: Prescription Drug Use

During 2015-2016, about 46% of the US population used one or more prescription drugs in the past 30 days, down slightly from 48% a decade ago, according to new data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
For the 2015-2016 period, prescription drug use increased with age, from 18% among children younger than 12 years to 85% among adults 60 and older, Cynthia L. Ogden, PhD, and colleagues report in a data brief published online May 8.

Prescription drug use was lower among males (42%) than females (50%), although the pattern differed by age. Among children up to age 11, prescription drug use was higher among boys (22%) than girls (14%), while among adults aged 20 to 59, prescription drug use was lower among men (38%) than women (56%). There were no significant differences by gender among adolescents aged 12 to 19 or adults aged 60 or over.

Prescription drug use was highest among non-Hispanic whites (50%), followed by non-Hispanic blacks (45%), and lowest among non-Hispanic Asian (33%) and Hispanic individuals (37%).

Bill’s Blog Is On Vacation

My wife and I are in Europe celebrating our 25th wedding anniversary.
No internet and no blogs until Wisdom Wednesday, May 15th!

Researchers look at the link between gut bacteria and autism

New research looks to the gut microbiome to try to address some of the symptoms associated with autism, but this investigation comes with its own set of problems.

The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke explain that "autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to a group of complex neurodevelopment disorders characterized by repetitive and characteristic patterns of behavior and difficulties with social communication and interaction." They also point out that specialists use the term "spectrum," as autism is different in different individuals. The condition can incorporate a "wide range of symptoms, skills, and levels of disability in functioning."

Research has also found that autistic children often experience chronic gastrointestinal problems a lot more frequently than children without autism. This has led scientists from Arizona State University in Tempe to explore whether a fairly new form of therapy — microbiota transfer therapy (MTT) — can help solve gastrointestinal issues in autistic children. Also, they wanted to see whether this intervention could affect other autism markers. MTT involves collecting, processing, and freezing the fecal material of healthy people, and then administering it — orally or rectally — to the person receiving the treatment. Thus, the healthy bacteria should re-establish a balance in the gut microbiome of the person experiencing gastrointestinal problems.

The researchers explain that at the start of the study, autistic children had poorer bacterial diversity in the gut, compared with neurotypical children with healthy and balanced microbiota. More specifically, two beneficial bacterial strands — Bifidobacteria and Prevotella — were lacking in the microbiota of children on the spectrum. Following the initial MTT intervention, the autistic children experienced more gut bacterial diversity, including increased levels of Bifidobacteria and Prevotella. In the new clinical trial, which measured bacterial diversity in the gut after 2 years from the intervention, the children had even more bacterial diversity and a steady presence of healthful bacteria.

Thyroidectomy Seems to Improve Quality of Life in Hashimoto Disease

Total thyroidectomy appears to improve quality of life in patients with Hashimoto disease, according to a study in the Annals of Internal Medicine.

Roughly 150 adults with Hashimoto-related symptoms despite adequate hormone substitution were randomized to receive either total thyroidectomy with standard medical therapy or medical therapy alone. All had serum antithyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) antibody titers above 1000 IU/mL at baseline.

At 18 months, surgery patients had significantly better health-related quality-of-life scores than did controls. Surgery patients also had improved fatigue scores, and their serum anti-TPO antibody levels were significantly lower.

My Take:
Hashimoto’s disease is an autoimmune disease of the thyroid gland. It is estimated that a third of all patients suffering from hypothyroidism have Hashimoto’s.

The condition often goes undiagnosed as the confirmatory tests – thyroid peroxidase and thyroid autoantibodies – are seldom performed. However, there is renewed interest in Hashimoto’s as evidenced by this study.

Traditional treatment of Hashimoto’s disease is limited to hormone replacement therapy using Synthroid. There is no medical approach to treat the underlying autoimmune disease. Even in this extreme treatment where the thyroid gland is surgically removed, the underlying disease is not addressed.

Review: The Role of Vitamin D and Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein in Amyloid Clearance and Brain Health

A review on the relationship between vitamin D and low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP-1) has revealed that the two may work together to possibly clear amyloid-beta (Aβ), whose deposition is considered linked to the progression of neurological dysfunction.

LRP-1 is a large receptor present on the body’s cells and is widely expressed, or present in several tissues. It’s a member of the LDL receptor family, which plays various different roles related to enzyme activation, the entry of bacterial toxins and viruses into cells and the metabolism of proteins that transport and combine with fats in the blood.

But LRP-1 has also been identified as a Aβ scavenger receptor that can remove Aβ from the brain through the blood-brain barrier. However, its expression is decreased in patients with neurological dysfunction.

This review points to recent evidence that after supplementation with the active form of vitamin D, 1,25 (OH)2D3, LRP1 expression increases significantly both in-vivo and in-vitro. This is because so many vitamin D receptors are expressed in the brain.

Is it better to get nutrients from food or supplements?

Researchers have found that nutrients from food may be linked to lower risks of death, while excess intake of certain supplements may have the opposite effect.

Taking supplements leads to an increased level of total nutrient intake. Dietary supplements include vitamins, minerals, herbs, amino acids, and enzymes. Suppliers sell them in different forms, including tablets, capsules, powders, and liquids. Common dietary supplements include calcium, fish oil, and vitamin D.

According to the 2018 consumer survey conducted by the Council for Responsible Nutrition (CRN), consumer confidence in products and trust in the dietary supplement industry is strong among people in the U.S. The survey found that 75 percent of U.S. individuals take dietary supplements, as opposed to just 65 percent in 2009. "This year's data provide further evidence that dietary supplements are mainstays in modern day health and wellness regimens," explains Brian Wommack, the senior vice president of communications at the CRN. Vitamin and mineral supplements such as vitamin D and calcium remain the most popular types. However, the use of herbals and botanicals — especially turmeric — has significantly increased during the past 5 years.

The main reason that U.S. individuals take dietary supplements is overall health and wellness, according to the survey. Although many people use dietary supplements, a recent study found that multivitamins, vitamin D, calcium, and vitamin C showed no advantage or added risk in the prevention of cardiovascular disease or premature death. However, folic acid alone and B vitamins with folic acid may reduce the risk of heart disease. The team, from the Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at Tufts University in Medford, MA, conducted a study to evaluate the association between dietary supplement use and all-cause mortality. The researchers have published their results in the journal Annals of Internal Medicine.

Wisdom Wednesday: Mineral Water versus Tap Water

Mineral water comes from underground reservoirs. Unlike regular drinking water, mineral water does not undergo chemical processing. As the name suggests, mineral water contains high quantities of minerals, especially magnesium, calcium, and sodium. But is mineral water better than regular water, and what are its benefits?

This article discusses some possible health benefits associated with drinking mineral water.

All living organisms need water to survive. Not only does water support essential physical functions, it also provides vital nutrients that the body does not produce on its own. While most people in the United States have access to clean drinking water, many people choose bottled mineral water for its perceived purity and potential health benefits.
How does mineral water compare with regular water? Based on the current evidence, the differences are not very significant. The water in household taps comes either from surface or underground sources.

In the U.S., tap water must meet the Safe Drinking Water Act standards established by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These regulations limit the number of contaminants present in water supplied to homes. Public water suppliers move water from its source to treatment plants, where it undergoes chemical disinfection. The clean water ultimately gets delivered to households through a system of underground pipes.